The Tug of War Over French in Canada
By Becca Newman
French language diplomacy within Canada and Quebec is a fascinating case of soft power operating within a multinational federal state. Unlike conventional language diplomacy, which typically focuses on projecting influence outward, the Canadian model involves two competing strategies, one national and one subnational, that interact, overlap, and sometimes clash. At the federal level, Canada promotes French as a unifying force that reinforces its bilingual identity and multicultural image on the global stage. Meanwhile, Quebec leverages French to assert its distinct identity and autonomy, engaging in paradiplomatic activities that align more with nation-building than with federal cohesion. To better understand this dynamic, I also spoke with Philippe Poirier, director of the Alliance Française in Philadelphia and a native of Quebec, who offered personal insights into the lived experience of Quebec’s identity politics. These competing visions of language diplomacy not only shape Canada’s domestic cultural policies but also have implications for the Francophone world, influencing how French is promoted and preserved beyond Canada’s borders.
Canada’s commitment to bilingualism is enshrined in the Official Languages Act of 1969, a policy that positioned French as a central pillar of national identity. From a diplomatic viewpoint, this law is the foundation for Canada’s efforts to promote French globally, using it as a tool for soft power and reinforcing Canada’s image as a linguistically diverse, multicultural nation. Federal institutions, including Global Affairs Canada, consistently bring up their bilingualism in international diplomacy, demonstrating Canada’s role in the Francophone world while simultaneously accepting English as an essential global language.
One of the primary drivers of Canada’s French language diplomacy has been education and cultural outreach, particularly through programs such as the Canadian Studies Program Abroad (CSPA), established in the 1970s. This initiative aimed to promote Canadian culture, including its Francophone heritage, in universities worldwide. The Symons Report (1975) outlined how "Canadian studies abroad" would be used as a key diplomatic tool, improving global understanding of Canada’s history, politics, and cultural makeup. French language promotion played a crucial role in this strategy, symbolizing Canada’s commitment to linguistic diversity and reinforcing French as part of its national narrative (Trilokekar, 2007).
Canada’s Federal Strategy
Aside from education, Canada’s participation in the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF) demonstrates its use of French to improve its global influence. As one of the largest contributors to the Francophonie, Canada presents itself as a bridge between the Anglophone and Francophone worlds, advocating for human rights, education, and sustainable development while maintaining a bilingual international presence. However, Canada’s ability to leverage the Francophonie as a soft power tool has often been constrained by internal politics, particularly the need to balance federal and provincial interests, especially those of Quebec.
Despite its global ambitions, Canada’s French language diplomacy faces structural challenges. Although French is an official language, it is predominantly spoken in Quebec, with much smaller concentrations in New Brunswick and minority communities elsewhere. This geographical imbalance complicates efforts to present French as a truly national language, leading to questions about its practicality beyond Quebec. Moreover, the dominance of English in global politics, business, and culture is an ongoing challenge, requiring significant investment to sustain French as a relevant and influential language in Canada’s external relations.
Quebec’s promotion of French abroad has taken several forms, including the establishment of Quebec Studies centers in universities worldwide. In the 1980s, Quebec launched Opération Amérique, an initiative aimed at improving its image in the United States by promoting its French-speaking identity. This initiative coincided with rising debates over Quebec sovereignty and the electoral success of the Parti Québécois (PQ), reflecting how language diplomacy and political autonomy became increasingly intertwined (Balthazar & Hero, 1999).
However, Quebec’s strict language policies have also created internal tensions. Poirier, who grew up in a francophone family, explains the impact of Quebec’s laws on bilingualism: “There’s a law in Quebec where if both your parents went to school in French, you cannot, by law, go to school in English. It’s meant to maintain the French language. I had English as a mandatory subject, but I could not have gone to an English school until I was 18.” This policy reflects Quebec’s determination to preserve French as the dominant language, even as global pressures push toward bilingualism.
Quebec’s approach to French language diplomacy differs greatly from Canada’s federal strategy. For Quebec, French is not simply one of two official languages; it is the basis of its cultural identity and political autonomy. The province’s history of asserting its distinct nationhood within Canada has led to the development of a separate diplomatic strategy, in which French is both a tool for self-determination and an instrument of global cultural influence.
A turning point in Quebec’s global engagement was the Gérin-Lajoie Doctrine of 1965, which stated Quebec’s right to conduct independent international relations in areas of its jurisdiction, particularly education and culture. This doctrine laid the foundation for Quebec’s paradiplomatic activities, allowing the province to establish direct bilateral agreements with foreign states and participate actively in international Francophone institutions. Unlike Canada’s approach, which integrates French into a bilingual and multicultural framework, Quebec’s diplomacy presents French as the core indicator of national identity, reinforcing its distinctiveness from the rest of Canada.
Philippe Poirier, director of the Alliance Française in Philadelphia and originally from Quebec, describes this cultural separation vividly: “When you’re born there, within Canada, you know you’re part of Canada, but I’ve always associated my culture more with Europe and France than America as a whole. Probably because of the language. When it’s a different language already, you don’t feel that connected.” This sentiment represents the deep-rooted perception that Quebec is more aligned with the French-speaking world than with the rest of Canada.
Quebec’s Identity-Driven Language Diplomacy
Tensions Between Canada and Quebec
The coexistence of two competing French language strategies, one federal and one provincial, has led to recurring tensions between Canada and Quebec. The core of this conflict lies in differing priorities: while Canada promotes French as part of a unified bilingual identity, Quebec seeks to assert its linguistic and cultural sovereignty. One major point of contention has been education diplomacy. The Canadian federal government’s EduCanada program promotes the country as a bilingual study destination, attracting international students to Anglophone and Francophone institutions alike. Quebec, however, has resisted these initiatives, arguing that they fail to reflect its unique linguistic and cultural identity. In response, Quebec has launched its own initiatives, such as the "Study in Quebec" portal, to attract French-speaking students independently from the federal government.
The Quebec government has also introduced laws requiring immigrants to pass a French test, a move that has sparked debate. Poirier explains: “Some people say that’s not good because those universities [like McGill and Concordia] might lose students who would have come to Quebec but don’t speak French yet. It’s always a debate—how far do we go to preserve the language while making room for newcomers?” This ongoing discussion shows the challenges of balancing cultural preservation with economic and educational opportunities.
Ultimately, the case of French language diplomacy in Canada and Quebec illustrates the complexities of soft power within a multinational federation. While the federal government seeks to promote French as a pillar of Canada’s national identity, Quebec uses the language as a tool for self-definition and international involvement. These competing strategies often result in tensions over cultural and language policy, diplomacy, and international representation, yet they also highlight the enduring importance of French as a force for influence in Canada and beyond.
Work citedBalthazar, L., & Hero, R. (1999). Quebec and the American Dream. McGill-Queen's University Press.
Paquin, S. (2004). Paradiplomacy and International Relations: A Theoretical and Comparative Analysis. Routledge.
Poirier, P. (2024). Interview with Philippe Poirier, Director of Alliance Française in Philadelphia. Conducted by Becca Newman.
Trilokekar, R. (2007). The Internationalization of Canadian Universities: A Critical Analysis of the Canadian Studies Program Abroad (CSPA). University of Toronto Press.